Discuss in Scholarly Detail the Benefits and Risks Associated with Strategic Management Essay Example for Free

Discuss in Scholarly Detail the Benefits and Risks Associated with Strategic Management Essay Strategic management allows organizations to be more proactive than reactive and to initiate and influence internal and external activities to gain control over its own destiny. It allows executives at all levels to participate in analyzing a firms current practices in order to formulate and implement shorter and longer term strategies for growth and development. Historically, this participative approach has produced better results. Another benefit of strategic management has been to formulate better strategies through the use of the more systematic and proven methodologies. Organizations of all sizes have recognized and realized the benefits of strategic management. While financial benefits include increased sales, profitability and productivity, non-Financial benefits include, better understanding of competitor’s strategies and reduced resistance to change across the organization. Strategic planning with risk awareness has always been difficult. According to Rick Funston Bob Ruprecht (http://bpmmag.net), Success demands excellent risk management as a core competency. Risk intelligence enables an organization to respond to rapidly changing circumstances with greater agility and resilience. Risk handled well becomes a source of competitive advantage; handled poorly it can severely hamper a companys prospects. The greater the risk, the less complacent organization can afford to be. More often executives who are responsible for strategic planning lack an integrated view of risk due to the unavailability of business intelligence when needed. Many organizations fail to consider a range of time horizons when incorporating risk considerations into the planning process resulting in uncertainty down the chain-of-command with each expanding time horizon. Unavailability of an integrated decision-support framework that links key performance metrics with business and risk intelligence multiplies the risks exponentially.

EMily :: essays research papers

The EDIS Bulletin, the Society's semiannual newsletter, is seeking a new editor following the resignation of Georgiana Strickland, editor since 1991. The Bulletin, which goes to all members of EDIS as part of membership, is aimed at a broad array of readers, both scholarly and nonscholarly, with an interest in Dickinson. It covers the work of contemporary poets and artists influenced by Dickinson; profiles of outstanding Dickinson scholars, past and present; news of the two Dickinson houses in Amherst; reviews of publications and performances of works dealing with the poet; news of the Society and its activities; and other feature articles of interest to the membership. It is not intended as a scholarly journal, a role fulfilled by EDIS's other publication, The Emily Dickinson Journal. EDIS is open to new subject areas and directions for the Bulletin. The duties of the editor include responsibility for the choice of articles to be included, editing of all articles, typesetting and page makeup (or supervision thereof), and arranging for printing and mailing of copies to all members of EDIS. The position is unpaid, but all normal expenses are paid by EDIS. The editor must be a member of EDIS in good standing and a resident of the United States (to facilitate mailing). The editorship carries with it membership on the EDIS Board of Directors. It is hoped that the new editor will begin serving with either the spring 2002 or the fall 2002 issue. Inquiries and letters of interest should be sent to Georgiana Strickland, 133 Lackawanna Rd., Lexington, KY 40503 or via e-mail to georgiestr@aol.com. The final selection must be approved by the EDIS Board of Directors. SCHOLAR IN AMHERST PROGRAM ANNOUNCED The Emily Dickinson International Society announces the creation of a Scholar in Amherst Program. The program is designed to support research on Emily Dickinson at institutions such as the Frost Library of Amherst College, the Jones Public Library, the Mount Holyoke College Archives, the Dickinson Homestead, the Evergreens, and the Amherst Historical Society. Each year EDIS will provide a $2,000 fellowship, to be used for travel, accommodations, a rental car, and expenses related to research. A minimum stay of a week in Amherst is required; recipients may also use the fellowship to initiate a lengthier stay in the area. We will give preference to persons who are in the early stages of their careers with demonstrable need to do research in Amherst institutions.

Commentary on Robert Frost’s ‘Out Out’

‘Out Out' is a poem that tells the story of a young boy cutting his hand off while chopping wood and then dies, and how those around him cope with the death. This poem shows many techniques which are quite common in Frost's poems; such as imagery, ambiguity and it also has a universal theme to it. This poem can be perceived to have several themes, one of which may be the lives of those living in rural areas and how they have to get on with their lives when they have lost someone close, because there is nothing else they can do. Another theme to the poem could be that of child labour in rural areas, and although the poem is set in Vermont, this is a universal theme, as child labour is known to exist all over the world. The first line of the poem, ‘The buzz saw snarled and rattled in the yard' does many things for the poem. For a start, the line sounds quite threatening to us and immediately we think that the saw will later become a problem or an issue. The line also personifies the saw, which further makes us believe that the saw will later play a major role in the poem. Frost also personifies the saw by using words like snarled and rattled which makes the saw seem beast-like. The word buzz is onomatopoeic which again personifies the saw. The next line, ‘And made dust and dropped stove-length sticks of wood' describes the saw's purpose in the poem; it makes us more familiar with the saw. The next few lines set the scene of the poem, ‘Five mountain ranges one behind the other, Under the sunset far into Vermont'. Some say that this is a reference to the bible, in Psalms*. The image that this line creates is soothing and contrasts with the first line, which can be perceived as being threatening. The phrase ‘Under the sunset' is ambiguous; it can be interpreted as a soothing image for some but for others it may resemble an ending of something more than just day. Generally, the first five lines set the scene of the poem. They tell us more about where the poem is set and what kind of life the boy lives- a rural life. The seventh line goes on to say ‘And the saw snarled and rattled, snarled and rattled', which is a repetition of the first line. The repetition here is used to show that a long time is passing by while the saw is being used and that perhaps the job is monotonous. This line also brings us back to the reality that the poem is trying to show us. The 2 lines just before line seven gives us a soothing and peaceful image but amongst all this beauty there is this saw, a saw that Frost describes as dangerous. ‘Call it a day, I wish they might have said' has a tone of regret and sympathy, showing that the persona knows what will happen to the boy, and this leaves us to think what will happen and we are left to fear the worst. ‘To please the boy by giving him the half hour that a boy counts so much when saved from work.' This line shows more regret and it is at this point that we realise that the poem involves a young boy and this saddens and worries the reader even more. The line also subtly suggests that if it was ‘called a day' then perhaps the incident with the saw would not have happened. In line 14, the boy's sister comes to him to tell him that it is time for dinner. At this point we are slightly relieved, as the word ‘supper' which is used in the line, relates to normality and we all feel safe in the domesticity and regularity of our own home and therefore, we think that perhaps what we had predicted to happen would not come true. Frost, again personifies the saw in lines 15 and 16, ‘At the word, the saw, as if to prove saws knew what supper meant†¦' Again, Frost makes us fear the worst, and in the next line our fears come true, ‘Leaped out at the boy's hand, or seemed to leap- He must have given the hand'. In the last phrase of this line, Frost has used irony; when someone gives their hand it usually means they are greeting someone or making an agreement on something. Frost words it in such a way as if he is suggesting that the boy welcomed the saw. He then goes on to say in line 18 ‘However it was neither refused the meeting. This again implies that the boy did nothing to stop the saw from hurting him. ‘The boy's first outcry was a rueful laugh'. In this line we are shown that the boy did not cry at first but laughed at his careless mistake, laughed as if to stop himself from crying, or perhaps just because the fact that he had hurt himself hadn't sunken in yet. When he showed his family what had happened he ‘swung toward them holding up the hand, half in appeal but half as if to keep the life from spilling'. In this line, the words ‘half' and ‘spilling' create very gory pictures in our minds. ‘Half' shows the image of half a hand, and ‘spilling' shows the image of red blood rushing out from his cut hand. ‘Then the boy saw all-‘. In this line Frost has used the word saw as a homonym; it could mean that he ‘saw' his life flash before him or it could mean ‘that he had sawed off all of his hand'. The pause after the word ‘all' creates suspense and emphasis and one again we are left to think of the consequences and of what will to the happen the boy. In line 25 we are told the boy's response ‘Don't let him cut my hand off- the doctor, when he comes. Don't let him sister!' This makes the whole poem even upsetting because throughout the poem we are told the story from an outsider but here in this line, we are suddenly given the boy's view on the accident. The poem reaches an anti-climax in line 32: ‘They listened at his heart. Little- less-nothing! – and that ended it.' As readers, it is almost impossible to believe that the boy died from the incident, and the fact that the word ‘death' is not mentioned makes us want to believe that the boy is not dead but has survived. However, some would say that the anti-climax was right at the end of the poem: ‘And they, since they were not the one dead, turned to their affairs'. Here, we would expect the family to grieve and not be able to carry on the way they used, because that is how we would expect people to react in today's world. The reaction that the boy's family has showed is that of stoicism and in today's world, even if we do not realise it, examples of stoicism are common. Throughout the poem, we can see many of Frost's common techniques that he uses in many poems. For example, in line 6 he uses ambiguity with the word ‘sunset' which was mentioned earlier on in this commentary. Many of Frost's poems are in a conversational tone such as ‘Mending Wall', ‘Home Burial' and ‘After Apple-Picking'. To make the poem more conversational in ‘Out Out', Frost has used words such as ‘so', so as to make it seem like a live conversation. It could also have been used a gap-filler in the poem. Overall, I think that ‘Out Out' is a poem to represent the sadness and grief that families have to go through when they lose someone close and how they have to carry on with their lives just because there is nothing else they can do. It is the harsh truth of losing someone close to you, someone you love.

Donald Trumps Family Tree

Donald Trump is the child of an immigrant parent and is, therefore, a first-generation American. Trump was born in New York City, which was also where his Scottish mother and American-born father, who himself was the child of German immigrants, met and married. A Brief History Friederich  Trump, Donald Trumps grandfather, immigrated from Germany in 1885. He was an entrepreneur, as his grandson would later be, and sought fortune during the Klondike Gold Rush of the late 1890s. Before settling in New York City, he operated the Arctic Restaurant and Hotel in Bennett, British Columbia. Donald Trump was the fourth of five children born to Frederick Christ and Mary MacLeod Trump. The future president was born in the New York City borough of Queens on June 14, 1946. He learned about real estate from his father, who took over the family construction business at the age of 13 when Fredericks father, Trumps grandfather, died of influenza in 1918. The following Trump family tree includes Trumps family back to his great grandparents and was compiled using the  ahnentafel genealogical numbering system. Family Tree First Generation (Conjugal Family) 1.  Donald John Trump  was born on June 14, 1946, in New York City.   Donald John Trump and Ivana Zelnickova Winklmayr were married on April 7, 1977, in New York City.  They divorced on March 22, 1992. They had the following children: i. Donald Trump Jr.: Born December 31, 1977, in New York City. He was married to Vanessa Kay Haydon from 2005 to 2018. Their five children are Chloe Sophia Trump, Kai Madison Trump, Tristan Milos Trump, Donald Trump III, and Spencer Frederick Trump. ii. Ivanka Trump: Born October 30, 1981, in New York City.  She is married to Jared Corey Kushner. Their three children are Arabella Rose Kushner, Joseph Frederick Kushner, and Theodore James Kushner. iii. Eric Trump: Born January 6, 1984, in New York City. He is married to Lara Lea Yunaska. Donald Trump and Marla Maples married on December 20, 1993, in New York City. They divorced on June 8, 1999. Their only child was: i. Tiffany Trump: Born October 13, 1993, in West Palm Beach, Florida. Donald Trump married  Melania Knauss (born Melanija Knavs) on January 22, 2005, in Palm Beach, Florida. They have one child: i. Barron William Trump: Born March 20, 2006, in New York City. Second Generation (Parents) 2.  Frederick Christ (Fred) Trump  was born on October 11, 1905, in New York City.  He died on June 25, 1999, in New Hyde Park, New York. 3.  Mary Anne MacLeod  was born on May 10, 1912, in Isle of Lewis, Scotland.  She died on August 7, 2000, in New Hyde Park, New York. Fred Trump and Mary MacLeod were married in January 1936 in New York City.  They had the following children: i. Maryanne Trump: Born April 5, 1937, in New York City. ii. Fred Trump Jr.: Born in 1938 in New York City and died in 1981. iii. Elizabeth Trump: Born in 1942 in New York City. 1.  iv.  Donald John Trump. v. Robert Trump: Born in August 1948 in New York City. Third Generation (Grandparents) 4.  Friederich (Fred) Trump  was born on March 14, 1869, in Kallstadt, Germany.  He immigrated to the United States in 1885 from Hamburg, Germany aboard the ship Eider and acquired United States citizenship in 1892 in Seattle.  He died on March 30, 1918, in New York City. 5.  Elizabeth Christ  was born on October 10, 1880, in Kallstadt and died on June 6, 1966, in New York City. Fred Trump and Elizabeth Christ were married on August 26, 1902, in Kallstadt. Fred and Elizabeth had the following children: i. Elizabeth (Betty) Trump: Born April 30, 1904, in New York City  and died on December 3, 1961, in New York City. 2.  ii.  Frederick Christ (Fred) Trump. iii. John George Trump: Born August 21, 1907, in New York City and died on February 21, 1985, in Boston, Massachusetts. 6.  Malcolm MacLeod  was born on December 27, 1866, in Stornoway, Scotland to Alexander and Anne MacLeod. He was a fisherman and crofter and also served as the compulsory officer in charge of enforcing attendance at a local school beginning in 1919 (end date unknown). He  died on June 22, 1954, in Tong, Scotland. 7.  Mary Smith  was born on July 11, 1867, in Tong, Scotland to Donald Smith and Henrietta McSwane. Her father died when she was just over one year old, and she and her three siblings were raised by their mother. Mary died on December 27, 1963. Malcolm MacLeod and Mary Smith were married in the Back  Free Church of Scotland a few miles  from Stornoway, the only town on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland. Their marriage was witnessed by Murdo MacLeod and Peter Smith.  Malcolm and Mary had the following children: i. Malcolm M. MacLeod Jr.: Born September 23, 1891, in Tong, Scotland and died Jan. 20, 1983, on Lopez Island, Washington. ii. Donald MacLeod: Born in 1894. iii.  Christina MacLeod: Born in 1896. iv. Katie Ann MacLeod: Born in 1898. v. William MacLeod: Born in 1898. vi. Annie MacLeod: Born in 1900. vii. Catherine MacLeod: Born in 1901. viii. Mary Johann MacLeod: Born in 1905. ix. Alexander MacLeod: Born in 1909. 3. x. Mary Anne MacLeod. Fourth Generation (Great-Grandparents) 8.  Christian Johannes Trump  was born in June 1829 in Kallstadt, Germany and died July 6, 1877, in Kallstadt. 9.  Katherina Kober  was born in 1836 in Kallstadt, Germany and died in November 1922 in Kallstadt. Christian Johannes Trump and Katherina Kober were married on September 29, 1859, in Kallstadt. They had one child: 4.  i.  Friederich (Fred) Trump. 10.  Christian Christ,  birth date unknown. 11.  Anna Maria Rathon,  birth date unknown. Christian Christ and Anna Maria Rathon were married. They had the following child: 5.  i.  Elizabeth Christ. 12.  Alexander MacLeod, a crofter and fisherman,  was born on May 10, 1830, in Stornoway, Scotland to William MacLeod and Catherine/Christian MacLeod. He died in Tong, Scotland on January 12, 1900. 13.  Anne MacLeod  was born in 1833 in Tong, Scotland. Alexander MacLeod and Anne MacLeod were married in Tong on December 3, 1853. They had the following children: i. Catherine MacLeod: Born in 1856. ii. Jessie MacLeod: Born in 1857. iii. Alexander MacLeod: Born in 1859. iv. Ann MacLeod: Born in 1865. 6. v.  Malcolm MacLeod. vi. Donald MacLeod. Born June 11, 1869. vii. William MacLeod: Born January 21, 1874. 14.  Donald Smith was born on January 1, 1835, to Duncan Smith and Henrietta MacSwane and was the second of their nine children. He was a woolen weaver and cottar (peasant farmer). Donald died on October 26, 1868,  off the coast Broadbay, Scotland when a squall of wind overturned his boat.   15.  Mary Macauley was born in 1841 in Barvas, Scotland. Donald Smith and Mary Macauley were married on December 16, 1858, in Garrabost on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland.  They had the following children: i. Ann Smith: Born November 8, 1859, in Stornoway, Scotland. ii. John Smith: Born December 31, 1861, in Stornoway. iii. Duncan Smith: Born September 2, 1864, in Stornoway and died October 29, 1937, in Seattle. 7. iv.  Mary Smith.

Race Relations During The Early Colonization Of America

Race Relations in America Race relations are the ways in which people of different races living together in the same community behave towards one another. through the centuries race relations have played key roles in shaping our nation from the early colonization of America till now. American race relations started in early 1600’s when the English settlers arrived. We see the English arrive in North America where they attempt to establish themselves. Unfortunately the continent was already inhabited by native americans they called â€Å"Indians† because they believed at the time they were in the Indies. Moving forward in the 17th century the colonist and Indians are facing turmoil, the English sought peace with the Indians in an attempt to be different than the Spanish who were brutish and violent. Nevertheless the conflict was seemingly unavoidable hundreds of Indians raided the colonies before they were two weeks old. In a move to protect themselves they build a wall around their colonies as a first line of defense against what some referred to as the â€Å"savages†. Throughout this century we would see constant brutality from both sides back and fourth though each side had their own advantages, they also had devastating disadvantages. The English brought with them technology outside the reach of the Natives, Firearms. The English also unwittingly carried what would be their most powerful weapon, Disease that would later cripple the Indians dramatically tipping the scales for theShow MoreRelatedDifference Between Spanish And English Colonization1012 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the 15th through 17th centuries, advancements in technology and the desire for new resources spurred the exploration of the New World for both Spain and England. Spains interest in exploration soon surpassed the rest of the countries in the Old World and the nation began to claim the majority of territory in Central and South America. Spain sent conquistadores to a ssert their dominance in the New World through violent conquest which resulted in difficult relations with native populationsRead MoreEssay on Boss713 Words   |  3 Pagesthe Midterm Exam. 1. Discuss colonization in general, and explain why was England slow to begin colonization, and what factors finally enabled the English to establish successful colonies? 2. What was the relationship between early Virginia settlers and the Powhatan Indians, and how did Indian policies in the southern colonies eventually laid the basis for forced removal and reservations? 3. 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The South was pro-slave and the reason black slaves would end up freed (Goldfield 2007). Abolitionism began during the early 1830’s when Christians realized that slavery was opposite of their belief and a sin (http://americanabolitionist.liberalarts.iupui.edu).Read MoreImperialism: the White Mans Burden890 Words   |  4 Pagespowers are not bound to follow the laws, international laws and conventions. Imperialist powers make the laws. During the 19th century, British foreign policy had a goal to contain Russia and to secure strategic links to British imperial possessions in Asia and the Near East. This policy was in the best interests of British imperialism, which was the overriding concern in foreign relations. India was a major British colony. 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She explained about the different treatments during those times in which the social and racial class it was divided. Cuba and Argentina it was characterize by the separation of skin color. The Anglo-Saxon in Argentina and Cuba have the idea of superiority race and inferiorityRead MoreIntroduction. The Film, Gallipoli, Directed By Peter Weir,1677 Words   |  7 Pageshistory. The film depicts heritage myths regarding Australian culture; and Australia’s size in the world at large. Weir’s Gallipoli is taken from an Australian perspective and presents a compressed narrative of the events that shaped Australian society during World War I. The 20th Century saw the emergence of cinematography as a primary medium. One aspect of cinematography that is popular with audiences is war movies; movies that depict key battles that helped to shape the countries involved . GallipoliRead MoreLooking For Sanctuary : Mexico s Image Essay1544 Words   |  7 Pagesof his law degree in the United States. Contrary to the U.S., Mexico allowed Hughes Sr. to practice his profession and provided him with new economic, political, and social opportunities: openings that had been closed to him at home because of his race. Motley and Hughes Sr. were just a few of countless U.S. blacks who fled the United States for Mexico in search of better opportunities. In an interview for Ebony Magazine, Motley stated, â€Å"Maybe subconsciously I like Mexico because there is a feelingRead MoreKnowledge Is Power, It Is The Essential Key To Success1587 Words   |  7 PagesKhalil Gibran Muhammad help gradually break down the early victimization for people of colour. His book titled the condemnation of blackness: race, crime and the making of modern America, talk about of black criminalization and how its effect has been proven crucial to the creation of modern America, damaging the ideas about crime and race of African Americans. Muhammed airs out the deeply embedded notions of African-Americans as a dangerous race of criminals in a rather unfair contrast to working-class

Use Of No Suicide Contracts With Mentally Ill Patients

This report is a critical review of the evidence around the use of no-suicide contracts with mentally ill patients experiencing suicidal ideation. It will ask the question â€Å"When treating mentally ill patients, does the use of ‘No- Suicide contracts reduce suicide outcomes?†. Suicide is a global concern and given the current social and economic difficulties current society face, is imperative we continue to consider effective suicide prevention strategies. The literature suggests that no suicide contracts are widely used within this area of practice and are concerned with asking a person to promise not to harm themselves. This report suggests that there is limited evidence to support the effectiveness of no suicide contracts. However where they have been used successfully, it may be the use of the relationship between the clinician and patient which influences the positive outcome. Based on the findings the report recommends that further training around clinical ris k management and suicide prevention strategies should be offered to a local team to reduce the use of no suicide contracts in isolation. Bridges transformation model was used to develop and implement an action plan to support change. Introduction. This report aims to critically review the literature around the use of no suicide contracts (NSC), in the in the treatment of mentally ill patients experiencing suicidality. It will aim to review the literature, including local and national policy, considering theShow MoreRelatedThe Implications Of The Criminal Justice System Essay1683 Words   |  7 Pageswhich is why it has great difficulties in trying to find a right balance of how to deal with the numerous different individuals that have particular needs. In this paper, I will address the implications brought upon by mentally ill and aboriginal offenders in prison. Mentally ill and aboriginal prisoners pose different and unique challenges to the criminal justice system, such as in relation to correctional personnel, the inmate population, and the community. Prison, as many sociologist see itRead More The Pros and Cons of Managed Mental Health Care Essay examples1462 Words   |  6 Pagescorporations to keep costs low and still make money. Proper implementation of managed mental health care would likely result in high quality, low cost mental health care. Introduction Two decades ago hospitals were for the physically ill and asylums were for the mentally ill. With the stigma fading from mental illness and a movement toward deinstitutionalization, this paradigm of segregation of mental and physical health care does not hold true today. A direct effect of the paradigm shift is a greaterRead MoreEuthanasi The Argument Against Euthanasia1945 Words   |  8 Pagesconcern for that person.† Arguments for euthanasia is the prevention of the unnecessary prolonging of suffering of the patient who is diagnosed with a terminal illness, and their families, also, there is the argument of using resources, economic and human, in efforts to keep people who have incurable diseases alive. Arguments against euthanasia is that the thought of having assisted suicide could be a result of misdiagnosis from a doctor, and also, that euthanasia is the process of killing someone, whichRead MoreAn Individual s Health Status Of Your Vulnerable Group1700 Words   |  7 Pageslikely to die due to their untreated mental or physical health problems (Funk, Drew, Knapp, 2012). Having a chronic medical condition such as Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) or Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) put them at an increase risk of suicide and depression. Due to the lack of proper health care and unhealthy and risky behaviors the prognosis is usually poor (Funk, Drew, Knapp, 2012). There was a study done that showed about 75-85 percent have a harder time or is unable to access properRead MoreImmanuel Kants Ethical View On Health Care2117 Words   |  9 Pages5. Legalization would bring honesty, clarity and transparency to an existing practice. Meier et.al (1998) in his national survey of physician assisted suicide and euthanasia in the US; found that even when PAS is not legalized, there have been requests to hasten death in some situations. 6. A lot of those supporting PAS argue that it helps cut down on the health care costs. With the last report showing $ 170 billion spent on the last six months of one’s life, its clear health care is at its peakRead MoreThe Face Of Physician Assisted Suicide Or Pas1862 Words   |  8 PagesIn 2014, Brittany Maynard became the face for those supporting physician assisted suicide or PAS. 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Why were Witches women Free Essays

For over three centuries, early modern Europe was largely dominated by witchcraft persecutions, the scale of which such atrocities had never been witnessed before. These persecutions arose from various significant instabilities of the times. Tens of thousands of executions were carried out, especially within Central Europe and the vast majority of deaths were attributed to women. We will write a custom essay sample on Why were Witches women? or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is what was most remarkable about this period; the fact that so many women were recognised as practitioners of witchcraft. I shall be closely following the reasons for such large-scale prosecutions within the early modern period. In particular, I shall be looking at the different sub-categories concerning reasons for such a rise in the nature of witch prosecutions. These categories will be broken up as follows; the Church’s view on maleficia, whom the witches were, the effect society had on the arrival of witchcraft, literature’s perspective, natural thought and freethinking, and the confessions of witches. The Church was integral to the whole belief system within modern day Europe and was the main, driving component for social, economic and religious conformity. However, the Catholic Church as a unit had been threatened through ‘The Reformation’ and theological perceptions and ideas were changing. People’s interpretations and prior beliefs were now being challenged, criticised and there was now total religious uncertainty and unbalance within society. ‘This consequently led to the powerful ‘Counter Reformation’ in which the Catholic Church began an attempt to not only counter the Protestant Reformation, but also to eliminate corruption, educate clergy and inspire faith in the common people’- (B. P. Levack, 1995). The combination of these two ecclesiastical revolutions induced the inevitable religious disorder, which in turn would spur the rise and development of more numerous and more extreme witch-hunts. In addition, these two reformed religions placed a renewed importance upon individual morals. ‘This issued many with the desire to place the burden of sins upon someone else, and in effect to acquire a scapegoat’- (B. P. Levack, 1995). Throughout history, such scapegoats have generally been the rejects of society, the loners, the sick, and the poor. This age was no different and in their search for a victim, someone to hold responsible, they found the witches. This period of great religious, social and economic transformation combined with the prevalence of epidemics and natural disasters now had a target on whom to lay all the blame upon; a physical embodiment of the evil that had been endured. Furthermore, as well as Martin Luther and Jean Calvin highlighting and condoning the burning of witches as ‘whores of Satan’, the Church as a whole was responsible for accepting witchcraft as part of society, essentially forming the moral backing needed for such large-scale atrocities. So then, in 1485 the Catholic inquisition authorities published ‘Malleus Maleficarum’. This was essentially a book, confirming women as those responsible for witchcraft, as those capable of evil and temptation. ‘Women are by nature instruments of Satan†¦ they are by nature carnal, a structural defect rooted in the original creation’ The bible also condemned witchcraft, or so people thought. Within Exodus 22:18 it orders, â€Å"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live†. It is then this mixture of Church and theological backing that gave the people of Europe the authority to act upon the ‘witches’ within society, and to destroy anyone suspected of witchcraft. ‘It is interesting to note then that this period of witch-hunting was most intense within Germany, Switzerland, Poland, and Scotland, where the countries were religiously heterogeneous’- (G. Geis, 1997), comprising a mix of numerous Protestant and Catholic believers. Moreover, the witch-hunts themselves have long been seen as part of a ‘war against women’, conducted overwhelmingly by men and particularly, by those in authority. Infact, Deborah Willis notes that â€Å"more polemical† feminist accounts â€Å"are likely to portray the witch as a heroic protofeminist resisting patriarchal oppression and a wholly innocent victim of a male-authored reign of terror designed to keep women in their place. † – (D. Willis, 1995, in web page). Holistically speaking, the Church’s contribution to witchcraft fears and prosecutions led to the general belief within society that demons actively interfered upon the Earth and that witches were hugely prevalent concerning the interactions with and/or the dealings with such forces upon the Earth. In general, there was a greatly intensified and invigorated belief in the supernatural. For those who did not believe in such ideas, it still remained a plausible and effective tool for shifting the blame onto the women within society. It is now important to fully recognise whom these witches were and to discern the types of women victimised for such ‘crimes against humanity’. In general, it was the women from the lower sections of society who were seen as those who had the opportunity to commit harmful acts. Those who were widows and so were therefore able to conceal things and to hide within the cloak of darkness; to practice their magic and to meet with their familiars and even with the Devil himself, were often susceptible to prosecutions. In addition, these women were seen as ‘vessels of nature’ and much closer to the environment and conditions of nature than men, and so more able to dominate the elements. The number of unmarried women was also increasing and this was another cause for fear within society. These women were considered a burden on society. The other group vulnerable to witchcraft accusations were midwives. One of the ostensible practices of witches was the execution and cannibalism of infants, especially those who had not yet been baptised into the Christian faith. Therefore, it is of no surprise that this particular group was especially focused upon in terms of prosecutions. It was essentially a way for grieving families to be able to lay blame upon the midwife for the death of their child, particularly within times of increasing infant mortality and occasional infanticide. The general view however was that witches were often cited as those ‘outsiders of society’, reliant upon community relief and benefits, draining the land of it’s wealth. Additionally, women were often cited with sorcery because of their traditional roles as cooks, nurses, midwives and keepers of the home. Witches were often associated as those who were in league with the Devil and as those who would meet at ‘Sabbats’ to create spells, curses, practice killings and take part in lewd sexual acts with one another and with Satan himself. Single women were particularly focused upon for prosecutions concerning sexual abominations, as they were seen as more easily seductable and by far more sexual by nature. Indeed, the fact that the Devil was depicted as being the very form of a man highly extenuated the belief that women did take part in such acts. Society also saw women as being weaker in every sense of the word. They did not have the political power or physical capabilities to defend themselves. Therefore, they were thought to use magic to defend themselves and additionally make pacts with the Devil to achieve various things against their enemies. However, ‘the great witch hunts of the medieval period were long depicted as a ‘war against women’, conducted mainly by men, especially those in central authority’ (Willis, Malevolent Nurture, p. 12). The reason for this was ostensibly that men wanted to keep women in their rightful place within society, largely pacified and subdued. This came with the great fear of feminist accounts, which started to take place within this period. The subject of women projected as witches was widely held in belief within local communities and often formed the deciding factor in disputes within local communities. So if a particular person has had a bad harvest, or their child has dies in the night, the climate of Early Modern Europe was conducive to such accusations and provided the ammunition with which to prosecute. The times of the period were one of extreme economic turbulence and poverty. Across Western Europe in particular, the gulf between the rich and poor was consistently growing and there was a general decline also in the living standards of much of Europe. These conditions may however have persuaded people to contemplate using magic to help themselves and to achieve monetary or land gains, but on the other hand, it also maintained that accusations would be at a new high. Below is a table showing the relevance of monetary/land/food disputes within local communities and the effect being a widow within society would have concerning such disputes and jealousies in Essex, 1564-89: Kinship Relationships Husband and Wife * 4 Unspecified Quarrels (2) Sexual Jealousy (1) Broken Marriage Contract (1) Stepfather and Stepchild 1 Over Inheritance Grandmother and Grandchild 1 Obligation to collect wood Total 6 Neighbourly Relationships * (Object of dispute) * Food/Drink * 12 Animals 4 Money * 8 Implements 4 Unspecified loans 3 Boundaries/Land * 4 Children 3 Total 48 The difference shown in number between kinship quarrels and disputes within the community is substantial. It demonstrates the heightened debates and tension with local communities and supports the view that widows were particularly attacked within these times as defenceless, unimportant people of the community. Another crucial part of women being persecuted as witches, developed through another mind controlling and prevalent technique within this time period. This was the use of literature, so covering everything from the bible and Church readings to pamphlets and novels written within the time. It is not surprising that the ‘Malleus maleficarum’ had such an influential effect upon the rise of women as victims of mass witch prosecutions. Shakespeare also wrote within this time period and included a wide range of texts, often shadowing events and topics within Europe at the time. One of the key texts he wrote was that of ‘Macbeth’, where Macbeth and his wife gradually murder various people in line to the succession of Kingship for their own gratuitous ends. The central factor towards their warped ideals and evil dealings was that of the witches within the moors. These of course were depicted purely as women, with similar characteristics to those generally seen as witches within this same period. The very fact that Lady Macbeth had to effectively become a man and get rid of her female characteristics in order to succeed, parallels the social view of women within this time and further extenuates the likelihood of women as victims. Indeed, it is the prophecies of the witches that initiate the murder, corruption, greed and lies that manifest with Macbeth. The famous line of ‘is that a dagger I see before me’ spoken by that of Macbeth represents the conjuring of illusionary magic, produced by the witches of the time. Furthermore, the witches and his wife are inextricably linked together, in that they both influence Macbeth, and so the social view of women being manipulative, a natural temptation (as referred to in the Malleus maleficarum), a necessary evil etc is evidently shown within the literature of the time. The Catholic Church concentrated specifically upon the natural sin and evil within the individual and as mentioned previously, people saw the ‘witches’ as scapegoats, a group to blame for their sinful nature. The bible in particular was another greatly recognised and taught book within society and the very story of creation within Genesis demonstrates the sinful, easily tempted and generally weak nature of women. Also, within Revelation (the concluding chapter of the Bible), the sinful woman of ‘Babylon†¦ he Great Prostitute’, was also another indication of the weakness of women and showed this to be the case from the very beginning of creation to the very end. In general, the people of Europe saw the massacre of the ‘witches’ as a religious war of enacting justice on those directly against the will of God. One notion spread throughout literature was that of witches contacting and serving Diana, the ‘Goddess of the Moon’. Women were hence seen as the most likely persons to communicate with ‘Diana’ as a league of women joined together. Some confessed to actually riding with Diana and taking part in various activities, however they were later recognised to be delusional. Overall, the introduction of the printing press and the generally increasing availability of literature to the masses, allowed for more rapid transfers of elite beliefs in witchcraft and especially women as active participants. The trials of women within this period serve to reinforce and validate the beliefs transmitted through popular literature. One of the most confusing and baffling aspects of the ‘women as witches’ theme is that many actually confessed to charges against them. This of course did not help the assumption that ‘women were witches’ and served to just heighten the prosecutions and fuel the killings. Many ‘witches’ claimed that their experiences had been worthwhile and showed virtually no remorse whatsoever for their supposed actions. This was the case all over Europe and not just England, even though the killings were much more prevalent and torture much more extreme on the continent than in England. However, P. Levack described this fact as less surprising when various other considerations were taken into account. Such as the ‘women often being brought up to believe that they were indeed instruments of Satan and that they were the only imperfection within God’s creation’ (P. B. Levack, 1995). This however was simply society’s effort to instil such beliefs so as to relieve the worry of female independence and to of course resume the scapegoat it had found within the period in question. It is particularly interesting to note that many women actually testified against others within the community. They made up 43 % of witnesses against other women. Briggs’ notices that ‘women were active in building up reputations through gossip, deploying counter-magic and accusing suspects’ (Briggs, 1995). Women were completely surrounded by each sector of society and it was virtually impossible for them to escape punishment of some sort if they had first been accused of witchcraft. Ecclesiastically, the whole Church acknowledged the position of women as witches within society; and this simply gave the general public the opportunity to lay the blame for all the famine, disease, deaths and religious intolerance within previous years. The elite simply kept maintaining this strongly held belief in witchcraft and furthermore sustained the prosecutions and provided the literature and ethics with which to support these beliefs. What is key to this topic is that most prosecution cases actually refer directly to traditionally female aspects, such as the home, the kitchen, and the nursery; and on ‘culturally defined female tasks or occupations such as feeding (poisoning), child-rearing (infanticide), healing (harming), birth (death)’ (Christina Hole, date unknown). Furthermore, women within society were very much pacified throughout this time and this meant that they were easy targets for attack. These poor victims of attack simply existed within a delicate age of uncertainty, confusion and anger. Society believed in the existence of witchcraft and in the exponents of maleficia, the women of the times. On a more local scale too, communities widely looked to the accusation of witchcraft as a means to a specific end, whether it concerned land disputes or money disputes etc. These were very testing times, times of extreme economic struggles and religious disputes. In conclusion, it is interesting to note that as standards of living vastly improved and religious irregularities disappeared, prosecutions decreased dramatically and people suddenly began to notice that most prosecutions were actually highly nonsensical and irrational. Society gradually came to accept that it had indeed made many mistakes. How to cite Why were Witches women?, Papers